Navajo is rich in lexicalization processes. Lexicalization is when a combination of grammatical particles is used by the speakers in such particular combination more and more frequently until it becomes a lexical unit. Navajo words are composed of particles that interact with one another in a nuanced, dynamic system that allows for frequent creation of new words. The pace of language change in Navajo can be faster than in Western languages due to its internal dynamic system of particle interaction, and the foreign realities that need to be named. Many new word formations remain undocumented and leave the student astonished by length. Sometimes the resulting meaning is quite distant from the sum of its particles, but many times it can be traceable when looking at the particles. For this reason, I have compiled a list of particles that I stem from already formed words, while others come from Young (2000, pages 1-26, and 40).
A particle may be anything: a prefix, a suffix, an infix, a short adverb, or a short verbal marker. It may be a part of a word that may be applied to other words, or a word that connects words. Navajo prefixes are parts most commonly used at the beginning of a verbal unit, which add meaning of aspect, transitivity, reflexivity, or lexical nuances to the core meaning of the verb. The end of the verb provides the core meaning of the verb, and looks to be attached to prefixes like these to ground its meaning into context. However, most times the verbal stem remains so abstract or broad in meaning that even the notion of “stem” may be debatable.
This compilation may not feel completely accurate to the native speaker due to the intensity of language change and the multi-layered nuance in each of the forms, while many other particles are missing, but it is worth reporting as it may comprise a baseline for students and educators to make Navajo words more transparent. There are a number of works that have compiled similar lists, yet this particular list is done for readability.
Handling verbs
Educational literature calls a list of stems in Navajo language “handling” verbs. While this provides a baseline to teach students basic stems that repeat constantly across lexicon in Navajo language, many times they are not necessary used for handling. They may be better referred to as movement stems, or even stems that refer to processes of change in reality. The list presented by Young (2000, p. 40) shows how “handling” verbs may refer to different styles of processes affected by the verb, such as handling, propelling of flying. Attached to specific prefixes, they will later lexicalize into some specific meaning where the original meaning of the root may become fuzzy.
Young divides Navajo handling stems into Transitive and Intransitive roots. The label transitive may sometimes not be completely accurate in strict linguistic terminology as the movement may not directly affect an object. The word “transitive” may refer to the movement and impact on certain realities or objects each stem may imply.
Transitive Roots
Solid Round Object = SRO
-’ą́ (perfective), –’aah (imperfective) = handle
-ne’ (perfective), -łne’ (imperfective) = propel
-ts’id (perfective), –’ts’ííd (imperfective) = fly
Non Compact Matter = NCM
-jool (perfective), –jooł (imperfective)
Mushy Matter = MM
-tł’éé’ (perfective), –tł’ééh (imperfective)
Flat Flexible Object = FFO
-tsooz (perfective), -łtsoos (imperfective) = handle
-’ah (perfective), ́-áád (imperfective) = propel
-’na (perfective), –nééh (imperfective) = fly
Slender Flexible Object = SFO
-lá (perfective), –lé (imperfective)
-déél (perfective) = propel and fly
-łdeeł (imperfective) = propel
-deeł (perfective) = fly
Slender Stiff Object = SSO
-tą́ (perfective), –tįįh (imperfective) = handle
-t’e’ (perfective), –łt’e (imperfective) = propel
-kééz (perfective),-kęęs (imperfective) = fly
Slender Stiff Object = SSO and Animate Object = AnO
-tį (perfective), –łteeh (imperfective) = handle
-t’e’ (perfective), –łt’e (imperfective) = propel
-kééz (perfective), –geeh, -tłíísh (imperfective) = fly
Load Pack Burden = LPB
-yį́ (perfective), –yeeh (imperfective) = handle
-łhęęzh (perfective), –yeeh (imperfective) = propel
-łhį́ (perfective), –łęęzh (imperfective) = fly
Open Container = OC
-ką́ (perfective), –kaah (imperfective) = handle
-kaad, –daaz (perfective), –kaad (imperfective) = propel, fly
Plural Separable = PIO
-nil (perfective), –niił (imperfective) = handle
-ni-de (perfective), –ni-deeh (imperfective) = fly
Plural Non-Separable Objects = PlO
-jaa (perfective), –jááh (imperfective) = handle
-kaad (perfective), –łkaad (imperfective) = propel
-daaz (perfective), ni-deeh (imperfective) = fly
Stream
-ziid
Intransitive Roots
-cha = weep, cry
-dlóóh = be cold
biih -ghááh = get into it (sg)
-dziih = remain, be left
-leeh = become
biih -geeh = fall into it
biih -nééh = crawl into it
keeh -’ees = put on shoes
biih -máás = roll into it
biih -tłíísh = fall into it
the line – as in –máás before the root means it needs something before in order to be a word.
Navajo particles
This compilation of Navajo particles is a word in progress that may require further references, refinement, and correlation with examples. This list combines prefixes, suffixes, stems, adverbs, parts of words or phrases that I have found repeated across lexical units. I have found them useful to complete other lexical entries with these particles repeated, to form names of places or list of clans, but it is the result somehow of “guess work” as a non-native speaker.
’á means comparator in nineez (is tall) versus áníłnééz (is taller), may also mean “to make” with the stem root -įįd. (needs reference)
’áá is a pronoun of place meaning “the mentioned place” and in “áádi” means “at the mentioned place” or “right there.”
’aak’eego means “so that”
’áko ndi means “and yet.”
’ál’į́į́gi means “the place at which”
’ál’í means “the place where people does things with something” like in “azee’ál’į́” whish means hospital, like the place where people are doing things with medications.
’áłch’į́ means there’s a shortage, as in Tó ’Áłch’į́dí (Dilcon, AZ), which means there’s a shortage of water
’ałdó means “also, too”
’ałtso means “finish doing something” + verb in perfective, implying something occurring right after something is finished, as in “shimá ch’iyáán ałtso ’áyiilaago ch’iyáán dadiidiił” which means “after my mom is done having cooked, we will eat the food.”
(a)hoodzą́ means “there’s a hole” as in Tségháhoodzání (Window Rock)
ádeií means “above” as in “Kináhálgaiídi Wááshindoon Adeií Hooghan”, the US senate
akéé means “the one who follows”
áyeií means “below” as in “Kináhálgaiídi Wááshindoon Ayeií Hooghan”, the US house
baa means about but also refers to the beneficiary of an action or a direction of movement “baa níyá” which means “came to visit someone”
báá means “extending” like in the clan “T’iis ch’ébáanii” which means “Gray cottonwood Extending Out”
bąąh is a particle included in béésh bąąh dah si’ání (the one sitting with a metal badge) or díkwíísh bąąh ilį́ (how much is something?), so may be expressing the notion of carrying something, like how much value this is carrying. Glosbe says it means “alongside” like in tábąąhí (water side, coast, coast line).
béé means “about” as in bééhozin (to know about) o béénáshniih (I remember about), may be lexicalized in verbs of knowledge. May be the combination of bee (with, by means of) + é (about) collapsed. Is it possible yééhozin?
bii’ means location exactly inside.
bik’ehgo means “according to”
bikéé means “at the very following place”
bik’i and yik’i imply their wellness, or on their behalf, like in “Diné bik’i adéest’į́į́” (overseeing the welfare of the people)
bilą́ąjį means “ahead of”, where the one who is merely ahead is “alą́ąjį dah sidáhí” or head administrator.
biniiyee means “with the purpose of” right after the sentence that expresses the purpose. The structure of the sentence is Verb + go biniiyee’ (the sentence expressing purpose), _________ (main sentence). Like saying: in order for _______, then ________.
biniina means “because” right after the sentence that expresses the cause. Verb + go biniinaa (the sentence expressing cause), _________ (main sentence). Like saying: because _______, then ________.
biidóó means “from out of it” as in “naaltsoos biidóó ’íhoo’aahígíí” meaning textbooks, referring to the knowledge that comes from the books.
ch’e means “out” as in “T’iss ch’ébáanii” which means “Gray Cottonwood Extending out”
ch’į́ refers to a shortage, as in Tó ’Áłch’į́dí (Dilcon, AZ), which means there’s a shortage of water
chii means “red”
chin refers to something spreading around odor or sensorial impression, such as in łikaní halchin (smells good) or niłchxon (stinks)
chon means “dirty, ugly, disgusting”
deesh means “along” or “to start”, used in me-future tense, and also in the clan Deeshchii’nii “Start of the red streak” or in deet’áázh meaning “we two are moving along” or “we two started moving in a direction”
deet means “various in a direction,” where the t indicates it’s only two people
déez’į means “some is looking”, as in “béeso yik’i deez’į́’í’gíí” or the one who oversees the money, treassurer
di means “at a place” when this is large or usually a proper name
dích’íí means “bitter”
dił means turning as in Dził ná’oodiłnii which means “turning mountain”
dildǫ́ǫ̨́ refers to something that pops or is explosive as in Tsé Dildǫ́ǫ́’ii (a mountain that is a volcano too)
dlii means “flows”
doh means hot, as in Hoozdoh (Phoenix, AZ) which refers to a spatial area that is hot
doo in a verb or after a verb expresses future
dóó bik’ijí after a verb means “after doing something”
éé means “revolving around” as in naashnéé (I played), nít’éé (revolved) or doolééł (will revolve)
éé or é means “about” as in bééhozin (to know about) o béénáshniih (I remember about), may be lexicalized in verbs of knowledge. May be the combination of bee (with, by means of) + é (about) collapsed.
ei in the middle of the verb is a passivizer like in na’neeztą́ą́’ is the third person perfective singular and dual for “teaching” which turns into neineeztą́ą́’ meaning “I’ve been taught”, also a transitivizer like an allomorph to yi as in the middle of the verbal form: wakes up (ch’ínádzííd), wakes someone (despierta a)
ghá means to walk
gi means at a place that’s not a city, or it’s used to signal a place within a place ______di, ______gi. Also refers to a human being at a certain place. Ólta’gi siké. The two (people) are at the school.
Díí naaldlooshii danél’ínígi bighan. Este animal vive en el zoológico.
gi means “how to do something” and goes right after the verb as in “k’idileyéegi yínida’niłtin” meanin “they 3+ teach how to plant”
giizh means “cuts” as in the verb but also in names of places where a cut through the mountain is implied, then it may mean a passage, as in ma’ii deeshgiizhnii “Coyote Pass”
góne’ means “at” like location but not exactly inside, also metaphorically if added to numbers makes ordinals or states series.
ha is contained in hadzíí which means to speak, to exclaim, to make a speech, where -dzíí means breathed, and ha means “to start a process”
hadi is contained in hadizíí’ which means to vow, to promise, and to swear, where -dzíí means breathed, and hadi means “all the way”
hal means “prairie, open space” as in halgai which means white valley
hí means “place, where they’re located, the thing you use to do” as in the clan Tsé sikéhí (where the two rocks are sitting)
hí means “the thing that is useful for” like in “bee akʼeʼelchíhí” which means “pencil or the thing that is useful to write”
Hootsoh means “the big place” and refers to a meadow among the rocks as in Tséhootsoh (Fort Defiance, AZ)
hwii refers to two people in the act of knowing something
í means “the one who has”
íí may be referring to the past, or specific point in time, as in ííłta which means I studied, he/she studied, they (2) studied
ííl’í refers to the person who does or build something, like in hoghan ííł’í “the one who does houses” or “construction worker”
ííł’íní is the person who does things with something, like in “azee’ííł’íní” which means doctor, the person who does things with medications
’į́ means “to see”
ii means “the one who does” or the doer, as in naabaahii which means the doer of war
jį means “at a place” just like “di” and “gi” but may be referred to another types of places.
jí means “in a direction”
ká may imply to receive something from someone, like help, as in Da’ nihiká ’iishyeed? (can I help you (2 or 3+)?)
ką́ą́ means “has it written, stuck, on”
ké means plural in words like at’ééké (girls) versus at’ééd (girl).
k’adę́ę means “after”
k’eh means in the way of like in Dinék’ehjí (in the way of the Navajo, referring sometimes to the language), or in k’ehgo or k’ehgį́ (in accordance with)
lahda means “sometimes”
ła means “some”, “a little bit”, “a bunch” or “one.”
łi means “in a color” or “in a way” as when a color is named as in łitsoi, which means “yellow”
ná is contained in nádzíí which means to heal a wound, where -dzíí means breathed, and ná means once again, so it’s like making someone breath again.
naa means something is done regularly or repeatedly.
na’a may be a variant of “naa” connected to the thing used to do something that is done regularly or repeatedly, as in na’a’eeł which contains optative ’eeł (to float) and na’a implies a device to float.
nááz means “round” as in “Názbąs” in T’is Názbąs “the grove of trees is round” or Náázlíní, the (river) that flows in a circle
nees / neez means “tall”, and may also mean “big” or “important”
ní means “of a color, in a way”
ní at the end means “the one who”
nii means “in a series, in a group” as in the names of the clans like in Tó dich’íínii or “Bitter water clan”
nidi means “although” or “even when” or “despite”, right after the sentence “shił hóyée nidi” meaning “despite feeling tired,” then adds something else. May also mean “still” at the very end of the sentence.
niłt’ílí means “it’s crystal clear as in “Tónilts’ílí”
ool refers to progressive as in oolkił (time) or ó’ool’į́į́ł (culture).
shą́ą́ refers to an area where there’s sunshine, as in Shą́ą́’tóhí “the place where water is in a sunshine”
sh appears inside a verb meaning me in the imperfective form, but along with z and s may refer to the third person singular/dual past or specific (perfective?) temporality
tá means “referring to water” and it’s a prefix substituting “tó” as in the name of the clan Táchii’nii meaning Red Running into the water”
táá góó, doo is a structure used in the following way: t’áá ______góó, (means “only if”, where space is a verb), _______ doo (then will ….)
t’áá ’áłtso means “all” right after the noun, as in “siláołtsooí t’áá ’ałtso” meaning “all soldiers.”
t’áadi means “near” like in the clan Dził t’áadi which means near the mountain, also t’áá might be referring to a mentioned place where something is located like “right at the mountain”
t’áadoo means “don’t” in a command.
t’ah means “cover, shade, leave, tense, state, yet”
tł’ah means “cover, cave”
tł’ash means “bottom” as in Tł’ááshchi’í which means “Red Bottom people” and also nishtł’ají
tsíín refers to a joint
ts’iin refers to the bone or something hard
tsin is a tree
ts’íís is the body or the flesh
ts’id is a tendon or something flexible
tsą́ is the inners
Ts’ózí means “thin”
yah implies coming in the direction of the speaker, like in woshdę́ę́ yah ’aninááh meaning you, come in (towards me)
yah means “up” or “upward” or “on” mostly after movement, or in a dynamic environment.
yi before the verb means the verb needs an object, and also implies direction
yíní is contained in yínídzíí’ which means to curse, where -dzíí means breathed, where yí means “directed at” and ní means “piercing”
yikáá means “on” referring to static physical presence.
yiyaa means “under” referring to static physical presence.
yóó means “away from sight” as in yóó’ííyá “is lost”
zah means “twisted” but I need to confirm and find an example
Navajo prefixes
I compiled this list while reading the list of prefixes in Young (2000, p. 1-26) to make notes for my own study of Navajo. Some of these items may be outdated, heavily lexicalized, or just infrequently used, but this list has helped me rebuild meanings whenever there’s an undocumented lexical entry in a reading or textbook. This list is designed for simplicity and readability as I extracted it for myself.
- ‘áá means “the previously mentioned place”
- ’a’ą́ means “into a hole”
- ’ááh means “signifies”
- ’áál means “signifies”
- ’ada means “downward”
- ’áde means “above self”
- ’ádéé means “back against self”
- ’ádéná means “back against self”
- ’ádi means “self”
- ’ádí means “against self”
- ’ahá means “bend apart, become disjointed”
- ’ahaa means “about each other”
- ’áhílák’ee means “into each other’s hands”
- ’ahiniiłt’a means “blocking each other”
- ’ał’a means “over each other”
- ’ałgháá means “swap, trade”
- ’ałghaná means “swap, trade”
- ’alhí means “contacting, reaching each other”
- ’ałhi means “each other”
- ’aso means “suffer”
- ’até means “harm”
- ’atí means “harm”
- ’éé means “onto something”
- ’éná means “onto something”
- ’lák’ee means “into hand”
- ą́ą́ means “uncover”
- ałná means “in opposite directions back and forth”
- ání means “uncover”
- ba means “use up”
- bida means “down”
- ch’aa means “travel, go out of view”
- ch’é means “out horizontally, coming into view, starting”
- ch’éé means “back out, starting over”
- ch’í means “out horizontally, coming into view, starting”
- ch’o means “support”
- cha means “darkness, cry”
- chá means “bunched, huddled, hog-tied”
- chą́ means “crave, be addicted”
- chi means “usefulness”
- cho means “usefulness”
- da means “cover, obstruct”
- da means “death, at an elevation, obstruct”
- da means “distributive”
- dá’áke means “into the field”
- dáá means “edge, block”
- daa’ means “lip”
- dááh means “in front of, meeting”
- de means “over, in excess”
- di means “near fire”
- di means “in the act of starting to go along”
- di means “Inceptive (in progressive modes)”
- dí means “disablement, belief, assistance, boredom”
- dí, dé means “concerning sight, vision”
- dii means “bring into contact”
- díní means “action is prolonged”
- dzi means “away into space”
- dzídza means “into the fire”
- dzíłts’á means “away from fire and water”
- gha means “away from, winning from”
- ghá means “through, penetrating”
- ’ees means “out of sight”
- ha means “up out, start (a process)”
- há means “a person”
- haa means “out of hand”
- hada means “downward”
- hadi means “all the way”
- hadini means “start and continue overlong”
- hast’e means “in order, ready”
- hatł’a means “head long, head over heels as in sudden fall”
- hi means “hanging, extending”
- ho means “in an area, itself”
- hw means “in an area, itself”
- í, é means “against, joining”
- jé means “carefully”
- ji means “away into space”
- k’a means “wound (as of an arrow)”
- k’e means “on top of, off something, against”
- k’e means “loosen, untie”
- k’eh means “overcome”
- k’éłk’e means “in footprints, in agreement with”
- k’i means “on top of, off something, against”
- k’i means “plant, farm”
- ka means “chronically ill”
- ká means “after, searching”
- kéé means “live, reside”
- kí means “up an incline, lean”
- ko means “this much”
- kó means “this way”
- ł means “each other”
- l’á means “ahead”
- lanaa means “war, enemy”
- łánáá means “one more”
- láta means “at the tip”
- łe means “into the ashes”
- łi means “flattery, cheating”
- na means “around, beside”
- na means “upward, around, across, dread, repeat”
- náá means “repeat once again”
- naaná means “reversing direction”
- náhidi means “turn over”
- nak’ee means “into the eye”
- ńdí means “iterative”
- ńdii means “start to, move up, describes a blow (with fist, club, whip or hand), na=up, di=inceptive”
- ndini means “finishing an action continues its effect, has terminal “ni””
- néi (na + yi) means “iterative + transitive: repeatedly do something to something”
- ni means “stop, finish, against”
- ní means “piercing”
- nii means “start doing something, or stop or finish it”
- niik’i means “on the face”
- niiłt’a’ means “alongside cliff, building”
- níká means “through”
- nikee means “back to surface”
- niki means “on the ground”
- niłk’éé means “spiraling”
- se means “durative conclusive like present perfect”
- she means “durative conclusive like present perfect”
- shi means “scold, be mean”
- si means “reception of sound, stative on oneself, permeation of liquid”
- t’a means “into a niche”
- ta means “among, mingle, grazing, barely touching”
- tá means “here and there, wander”
- táłts’á means “out of the water”
- té means “injury”
- tí means “injury”
- tii means “attack”
- tóó means “into water”
- tózhą́ means “watery”
- ts’á means “away from”
- tsą́ means “into belly”
- tsí means “mental process, thought, startle, fright, aimless, zigzag”
- tsíłts’á means “away from fire and water”
- tsístł’á means “cornered, trapped”
- wó means “optative”
- wo’ą means “over an edge, into a ditch”
- wó’ą́ means “over an edge”
- ya means “under, beneath”
- yaa means “dump, spill”
- yi means “passage of night”
- yí means “directed at”
- yii means “transitional, or shift from one state of being, form, condition or position to another”
- yisdá means “to safety, escaping”
- za means “into mouth, neck, throat”
References:
Glosbe. (n.d.). Navajo–English online dictionary. https://glosbe.com
Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages. (n.d.). Talking Dictionaries: Navajo.https://talkingdictionary.swarthmore.edu/navajo_particle/
Navajo Word of the Day. https://navajowotd.com
Neundorf, A. (1983). Navajo–English Dictionary. University of New Mexico Press.
Robert W. Young and William Morgan, Sr. (1987), The Navajo Language. A Grammar and Colloquial Dictionary, Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, page 196.
Wiktionary contributors. (n.d.). Navajo verb. In Wiktionary, The Free Dictionary. Retrieved October 31, 2025, from https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Navajo_verb
Yazzie, E. P., & Speas, M. (2007). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo’aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language: An Introduction to the Navajo Language (1st ed.). Salina Bookshelf.
Young, R. W. (2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview. University of New Mexico Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1c3gs57
Young, Robert; Morgan, William; Midgette, Sally (1992), Analytical lexicon of Navajo, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, →ISBN, page 40